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Frontier Poetry and Poets in the Tang Dynasty: Gao Shi and Cen Shen
1. The history of Frontier Poetry
2. The two most important frontier poets: Gao Shi and Cen Shen
3. Topics on conventions of frontier
4. Summary
Abstract
Frontier poetry is an important part of Tang poetry. This paper will chronologically introduce two frontier poets and analyze their representative poems. It will be divided into four parts. The first part briefly introduces the history of frontier poetry. The second part focuses on recommending the two most important representatives of frontier poets: Gao Shi and Cen Shen. The third part tries to do some analysis on the poems of the topic of frontier tribe conventions. The amount of the survived poems of this category is very small due to some reasons. One possible reason was poets seldom had living experiences in the tribes. The other assumptive reason was frontier tribes had been regarded as barbarians in Chinese history so that there were few poets paying attention to the frontier living conventions. The last part is the summary and arguments.
1.The History of Frontier Poetry The origins of frontier poetry can be traced back to pre-Tang Dynasty days. It flourished from the beginning of the eighth century. With the literal development of the poetry, on the one hand, poets gradually departed from court poetry of Early Tang, increased their individuality, and developed their own styles. Genres, topics and sub-genres covered wider aspects. The style of the poetry was evolved into "popular" from " court poetry" ("the poetry of the Eary Tang" (1977) by Stephen Owen, Page 416). On the other hand, the social, political, and practical life of the poets actuated them to write more freedom and plentiful topics. During the years of Kai Yuan (AD 713-742) and Tian Bao (Ad 742-756), Tang Empire was constantly invaded by ethnic minority barbarians near the border. The troops were frequently dispatched to the frontiers. It was natural that the theme of military expedition and soldiers' garrisoning the frontiers became one important topic among poets. Particularly, Xuan Zong (AD 712-756) ' respected frontier generals with illustrious military records and usually promoted them. The generals' promotion directly connected to their subordinate officers' future. So "serving a successful general had become a good stepping stone to the court at that time" ("Kao Shih"(1978) by Marie Chan, page 24). In the late years of the emperor, political corruption became rampant. It was increasingly difficult for an ordinary scholar to obtain a government position through imperial examinations. Thus it was a common practice for a scholar to join the army and to garrison the frontiers so as to be rewarded with promotion. This was essential to the development of frontier poetry. Frontier poetry, in the portion of the survived numbers of whole Tang Poetry, is a small part. But its unique artistic style has had wide readers since then. Recently some books and research papers have done some exploration in this field. One of the books, "Quan Tang Shi Jin Hua Fen Lei Jian Shang Ji Cheng"(edited by Pan Bai Ji,1989, River and Sea University Publisher), basically classifies frontier poetry into seven categories according to the topics of the poems: landscape, livelihood, conventions, emotion, garrison, war, and legate. (Page 305-347)
2.The Two Most Important Poet Representatives of Frontier Poetry: Gao Shi and Cen Shen
Gao Shi 高适： Gao Shi (AD 700?-765), also called Da Fu, was born in Bohai County (today's Jing County, He Bei Province).(Page 1369).His personality was latitudinarian. He lived in poverty when he was young. In AD 749,he passed the required exams and was appointed as Police Commissioner of Fengqiu, on the strength of recommendation of Governor General of Songzhou, Zhang Jiugao (?). Soon he resigned his post and traveled to the military as the army secretary for General Geshu Han (?) in Hexi. His talents were admired by emperors Xuanzong and Suzong in AD 755.He enjoyed a succession of promotions which led to his appointment as Governor General of Huainan, Shuzhou, Pengzhou, and Xichuan. In the Dai Zong court, he was nominated as deputy minister of justice and then Grand Councilor. He died in Changan in AD 765.("Kao Shih"(1978) by Mariec Chan, Page 15-16,chronology).
Gao Shi is the outstanding representative of frontier poets in High Tang. He was lucky to make friends with many famous poets at his time such as Li Bo, Du Fu, Wang Changling, and Wang Zhihuan. His poems delineated lots of frontier war life. He paid a tribute to the patriotism of soldiers and generals' repelling enemies and satirized the corruption of some frontier military officers. Some of his poets depicted the landscape of frontier borders. He also wrote some poems on sympathy of poor life of ordinary people. He was adepted in old style, parallel couplet, and rhythm. The syllable of his poem is full of leisureliness and euphemism. His poetry style was filled with sturdiness and riot. His poetry collection was named " the Collection of Grand Counciller Gao"(Quan Tang Shi Jin Hua Fen Lei Jian Shang Ji Cheng ,page 1396).
Gao Shi's life spans the three reigns of Xuan Zong, Su Zong, and Dai Zong. He went to the frontier three times, and combined the two roles of poet and military commander in his late life. He was greatly influenced by the Confucian doctrine of using public service posts in order to help govern the country and benefit the people. Due to the fatuity of the ruling class, his talents and ambition were ignored and frustrated for years. Even suffering setbacks, he did not allow his courage and determination to wane, as is evidenced by the consistent mood of ennobled aspirations that permeates his poetic works.
More than two hundred poems by Gao Shi have survived (Ch'uan T'ang Shih,Page 2202-2244). Besides some better ones in his earlier years, the most important ones are about frontier. His frontier poems pay tribute to the heroic mettle displayed by the soldiers and officers in defending their country---------a reflection of the prevailing spirit of the Tang Dynasty. Simultaneously these poems emanate a deep sympathy for the hard life of the soldiers, whilst exposing the decadence of their commanders.
Song of Yan stands as the acme of his frontier poems. He composed the poem according to his experience on the frontier although he was in Songzong at that time. The following is the poem of Song of Yan.燕歌行
Preface: In the twenty-six year of the Kai Yuan reign, a gentleman who had come back from Chancellor Zhang's mission to the frontier showed me his " song of yan", inspired by the war and garrison life, I composed this verse in reply. 开元二十六年，客有从御使大夫张公出塞而还者，作燕歌行以示适。感征戎之事，因而和焉。
The smoke and dust of war roll in the northeast,汉家烟尘在东北，
The general leaves home to smash the tottering foe.汉将辞家破残贼。
A true man is born to set great store by gallantry,男儿本身重横行，
The emperor has deigned exceptional graces to him.天子非常赐颜色。
Beating drums and gongs the army march to Yuguan Pass,摐金伐鼓下榆关，
Its standards and flags winding along Jieshi Hill.旌旆逶迤碣石间，
Field officials urgent dispatches speed across the desert,校尉羽书飞瀚海，
Tartar Chief's hunting fire set Wolf Mountai ablaze.单于猎火照狼山。
A desolate scene stretches to the farthest borderland,山川萧条极边土，
With Tartar cavalry running amuck like a violent storm.胡骑慿陵杂风雨。
Half of the soldiers have laid down their lives in battle, 战士军前半死生，
In the command camp pretty girls still sing and dance. 美人帐下犹歌舞。
In the vast desert, grasses wither in late autumn,大漠穷秋塞草腓，
In the isolated city, combatants are sparse at sunset.孤城落日关兵稀。
Obliged to imperial bounty but always belittling the foe,身当恩遇常轻敌，
The forts remain besieged despite all-out efforts.力尽关山未解围。
Mailed fighters at distant garrison have toiled long,铁衣远戍辛勤久，
Their wives must be shedding tears for the separation.玉筋应啼别离后。
In the south of the city young women are nearly heartbroken, 少妇城南欲断肠，
To the north of Ji the marchers turn their heads in vain. 征人蓟北空回首。
The plight on the borderland is hard to pull through,边庭飘飘那可废，
In the remote region there is nothing but desolation,绝域苍茫无所有。
Battle clouds redolent of death linger all day long,杀气三时作阵云，
Dreary watch-beatings regularly permeate the chilly night.寒声一夜传刁斗。
Looking at the white blades dripping with blood, 相看白刃雪纷纷，
Who can say the fallen fighters ever craved military merits? 死节从来岂顾动？
Have you not seen the arduous fights on the battlefield? 君不见沙场征战苦，
Up to now people still cherish the memory of General Li! 至今忧忆李将军。
According to the preface to the poem, the background regarding its composition seems to be related to Zhang Yougui, who was a government officer of justice and deputy governor of Hebei in AD 738.He concealed his record of defeat in a battle and instead reported victory to the emperor. However, the poem is not just confined to this battle, it is imbued with the author's observations and experiences in Jimen. The upheavals of the time were artistically epitomized. "Half of the soldiers have laid down their lives in battle; In the command camp pretty girls still sing and dance; 战士军前半死生，美人帐下犹歌舞。Such a poignant and harrowing contrast unsparingly exemplifies the wide disparities between life and death; pleasure enjoyed by the generals and danger faced by soldiers. The piece continues:" In the south of the city young women are nearly heartbroken, To the north of Ji the marchers turn their heads in vain." 少妇城南欲断肠，征人蓟北空回首。The mental state of soldiers missing their wives and relatives is an accurate index to the miserable life of the day. The poem ends with a description of the heroism of battlefield: " Looking at the white blades dripping with blood, Who can say the fallen fighters ever craved military merits? Have you not seen the arduous fights on the battlefield ? Up to now people still cherish the memory of General Li!". 相看白刃雪纷纷，死节从来岂顾动？君不见沙场征战苦，至今忧忆李将军。References to intrepid generals in history are made to contrast with corruption and incompetence of the frontier generals; their complete disregard of their own safety is the antithesis of the behavior of some frontier generals. As a result, the scope of expression of the poem is extended and its mirroring and criticizing of reality intensified. What is conveyed is extremely complicated but also well structured. On the closely interwoven tapestry are the natural environment deserts and a sanguinary battle atmosphere, coupled with the complex psychology of soldiers at war. The artistic style of the poem is rich in depth and subject matter with a sense of underlying tragic heroism.
On the whole, in Gao Shi's poetry, realism takes precedence over romanticism. His poetic voice is plain, yet impassioned and simultaneously enrapturing. It is precisely this point that makes him stand apart from his peers.
Cen Shen 岑参：
Cen Shen (AD 715-770), was Born in Nanyang (?) (today's Henan province, another saying Jianglin, today's Hubei province).He passed imperial examination in AD 744. In AD 749, he was the military secretary of Governor General of Anxi.Two years later he returned to Changzn. In AD754, he went to the frontier followed General Feng Changqin and was appointed as military judger of Anxi and Beiting.In Ad 757, he returned to the court as right second-string official. Then he was promoted as General Jiazhou in his fifty-five years old. He died in Chengdu after he was dismissed his post.( Kao Shih Ts'en Shen Shih Hsuan, page 6-10)
His poems depicted war life, landscape of frontier and singing praise of brave behaviors of officers and soldiers. His prosody was multiple. In particular, he was good at songs of seven characters. His poems were full of magnificence, colorfulness, imagination, novelty and pulchritude. He was eponymous as Gaoshi. His collection of poetry was called " The Collection of Cen Jiazhou". (Kao Shih Ts'en Shen Shih Hsuan, page 10)
Of Cen shen's poems, over three hundred and sixty have survived (Ch'uan T'ang Shih, Page2023-2107). The scope of their topics is fairly wide. Some of them are about his personal life experience, others are inspired by landscape. His works on exclusively personal matters are lack of profound social significance. Artistically, his descriptions of landscape are successful. His poems capture the picturesque scenery of frontiers, volcanoes, salt fleabane lakes, expanses of snow, deserts, fleabane and so fourth. His main achievements should be ascribed to his frontier poetry.
Some of his frontier poems were composed by poet's plentiful imagination although he did arrive at the frontier. For example, Song of Walking Horse River to the Departure of the Army on the Westbound Expedition, inspiring and powerful, was not written in the frontier.
Have you not seen, along the walking-horse River,君不见走马川，
Around the brink of Snow Sea,雪海边
The boundless swell of yellow sand soars up to the sky?平沙莽莽黄入天。
At Luntai the wind in the ninth month roars at night,轮台九月风夜吼，
The riverbed is strewn with broken rocks big as bushel measures,一川碎石大如斗，
Which are lunching and rolling about with the sweeping wind.随风满地石乱走。
In Tarta tribes grasses are yellow, horses stout and strong,匈奴草黄马正肥，
West of Gold Mountains smoke and dust are seen billowing,金山西见烟尘飞，
A great general of the empire leads the army westward, 汉家大将西出师。
The general wears his golden armour all the night,将军金甲夜不脱，
On the midnight march halberds brush and crash each other,半夜军行戈相拔，
The piercing wind cutting the cheeks like a knife.风头如刀面如割。
With snowflakes on their coats, the sweat evaporating,马毛带雪汗气蒸，
The fine steeds and piebalds are soon clad in ice;无花连线旋作冰，
Ink freezes as the denunciation is drafted in the tent.幕中草檄砚水凝。
Enemy cavalry'd surely become terror-striken at the news,虏骑闻之应胆慑，
They won't dare to engage us with swords at close quarters,料知短兵不敢接，
At Jushi's western gate I'll await the triumphant display of booty. 车师西门伫嫌捷。
(Translated by Hu Shiguang)
This poem is the most famous representative one of Cen Shen's frontier poetry. It can be divided into four segments. The first segment is from the beginning to "Which are lunching and rolling about with the sweeping wind.随风满地石乱走" . It depicts the natural ambiance of western subjugation." Wind" is the keyword to describe the natural inclemency. The first three sentences imply to the description of the day. The later three sentences clearly paint a picture of the night. The second part is from "In Tarta tribes grasses are yellow, horses stout and strong,匈奴草黄马正肥"， to "A great general of the empire leads the army westward, 汉家大将西出师"。 It tries to specify the reason of going the western campaigning. The barbarian took the opportunity of "grasses yellow and horses stout" to invade the border. The third paragraph is from "The general wears his golden armor all the night,将军金甲夜不脱，" to "Ink freezes as the denunciation is drafted in the tent.幕中草檄砚水凝。". It is the description of the procedure of army's marching under the midnight for going the western campaigning. The last sect is the wishes of the author to congratulate our army's victory in advance. The fantasticality of the poem is incarnated in two aspects. On the one hand, the novelty of the theme and the unique constitution of the poem are the characteristic of the poem. This poem is a kind of parting poem. As the subordinate of the general being sent off, the author neither pretended to say any sweet talk, nor empty wishes, nor parting melancholy. The whole poem is an assumption of the author. Although it is the assumption, the content is based on the reality. Because of his master-hand, readers are convinced by the picture of the poem and finally realize it is an presupposition until finishing the end of the poem which occurs "surely",应，"won't dare" 料想不敢。On the other hand, the language and the vocabulary of the poem are full of singularity. In particular, the first part of the poem repeatedly paints landscapes with exuberant language into which the poet pours his affection for the frontier. How the endless vastitude of desert covered by snow presented by the poet. This poem employs rhyme in each sentence, which is different from other song styles. That usually uses rhyme in alternate lines. Every three sentences it transits to another rhyme. The tone becomes higher and higher. The cadence is brief and imminent like the march. These characteristics completely combine with the subject of urgent western campaigning.
Many of Cen Shen's poems are well known among the reading public. His comparatively high reputation as a poet can be attributed to his resolution to defend China's frontiers, to direct experience of living there, and also to his " taking great pains " in cultivating his artistic skills particularly in the area of the seven-character song. His poems cover wide topics and the language is fresh and fluent. His rhyming schemes are flexible and variable, generally matching superbly with the content.( Kao Shih Ts'en Shen Shih Hsuan, page 10)
Summary of the chapter: Cen shen's poems are replete with heroic and passionate patriotism, which is where he is similar to Gaoshi. But apart from the point, the two are quite different. Cen shen's poetry concentrates more on the richness and variety of the frontier life, lacking GaoShi's sympathy with the soldiers. The latter's poetry combines narrative with comment, in which strong passions are expressed without inhibition. Cen's poems are more inclined to descriptions, using landscape as the vehicle to express feelings. Gao's art is ebullient and unadorned, whereas Cen's is dashing and unorthodox. Gao's prowess engenders a sense of depth, and in contrast, cen's grandeur sparks off feeling of lightness. Aesthetically perhaps Cen's creativity is more outstanding. He is imaginative, full of singularity and splendor, which renders him artistically more individulistic. (Kao Shih Ts'en Shen Shih Hsuan, page 10)
3.Topics on conventions of frontier barbarians
The amount of the topic on border barbarian's convention account for a very few part of all poems composed by Gao Shi, Cen Shen and other frontier poets. Through surveying several books such as "Ch'uan T'ang Shih" and "Kao Shih Ts'en Shen shih hsuan", I try to select some to do analysis. "The song of Ying Zhou" ，营州歌by Kao Shih (Kao Shih Ts'en Shen shih hsuan, P11) reflected the martial spirit of frontier juveniles. It says ： "the juveniles of Yingzhou like wold, 营州少年厌原野，with flossy and tousy fur and feather coat, they are hunting in the suburb. 皮裘蒙茸猎城下，They can drink one thousand glasses of wine but they are not drunk, 虏酒千锺不醉人，they can ride horse even when they are ten years old.胡儿十岁能骑马。" Another long poem by Cen Shen , "Say fairwell to Du Gu Jian with long sentences and present to the Minister of The Eigth Yan," 与独孤渐道别长句兼呈严八侍御(Kao Shih Ts'en Shen shih hsuan,page )borrows the description frontier convention to express the feelings of the poet's homesick and nostalgia. Another again long poem by Cen Shen, "The song of Lotus Rotation that dancing of beautiful girl of Tian legate is like", 田使君美人舞如莲花北鋌歌(Kao Shih Ts'en Shen shih hsuan,page) praises the beauty of dancing of minority tribes.
Besides the two most famous frontier poets, other frontier posts also wrote some famous poem on the frontier conventions. For example, "The song of Yangman Barbarians" ，雁门胡人歌，by Cui Jing，崔? (704-754), is a typical description of peaceful frontier tribe conventions. "High Mountain Daiqun is connected to the west of Yan, 高山代郡东接燕， The barbarians of Yanmen reside on the front of our home door. 雁门胡人家近边。The barbarians hawk their eagles chasing frontier birds,解放胡鹰逐塞鸟， ride Dai horse hunting in the fall plain能将代马猎秋田。 The wild fire of the mountain is most likely burn by the leisure people. 山头野火多闲烧，In the raining the lonely peak is moisten and the smoke is regarded as the beacon fire. 雨里孤风湿作烟。As soon as they are told no war in the west of Liao, 闻道辽西无斗战，time and time again, they go to pub to be drunk and sleep.时时醉向酒家眠。" The first two couplets describe the conventions of Yanmen barbarians. Although the first couplet says the barbarians reside in front of our home door and not wander again, they still keep the heritage of convention of hunting. So the second couplet includes animals related to barbarians conventions such as " barbarian eagle", " frontier bird"," Dai horse", that shows the difference from the Han. The third couplet is a sudden turning point of the whole poem." The wild fire" in peaceful age is normal. People burn the wild grass in order to let it grow up better for the coming year's pasturing. While Barbarians regard it as the beacon fire because the wild fire in the raining is moisten so that it looks like the beacon fire from far. It reflects the psychology of the trepidation of the border minority people. From the couplet we can see that minority people also love peace and war-weary. So when they hear no war beginning, they become tranquillity. But they still have to be drunk to cloak their panic. The description of barbarians' scare of war reflects the evil of the war.
4.Summary
Frontier poetry mainly depicts the landscape of frontiers and the life of garrison soldiers. Early in the Han and Wei dynasties there were frontier poems although the amount was small. In the Tang dynasty, frontier poetry occurred in a great amount. Some poets formed their unique styles. Gao Shi and Cen Shen are the most representatives of the style.
In addition, Wang Changling, Wang Zhihuan, Wang Han, Li Qi and other poets are also regarded as the genre of frontier poets. They describe the broad, splendid frontier landscape, the patriotism of soldiers and generals, resentment of soldiers' missing their wives and families, and the hard life of the frontier soldiers. The genre increases the content and development of the Tang Poetry.
Gao Shi lived in poverty for a long time in his early years although he was in high-ranking position in his late years. So he observed the society and understood the ordinary people's life. His style was conciseness, pathos and sparing. Readers are easily moved by his poem full of both pneuma and skeleton.
Cen Shen twice served in the army. He creatively described the frontier landscape. His style absorbed the achievements of recent style poetry since Six Dynasties. So he composed more famous poems.
In the history of poetry, people used to paralleling Gao Shi and Cen Shen. In fact, the poetry of Chen Shen has wide influence on later people. His poems are full of artistic individuality. For example, Luo You, a famous poet of South Song, was obviously affected by Chen Shen.
Bibliography
1. The Poetry of the Eary Tang" (1977) by Stephen Owen
2. Kao Shih"(1978) by Marie Chan, 1978 by G.K. Hall & Co.Boston
3. Quan Tang Shi Jin Hua Fen Lei Jian Shang Ji Cheng",全唐诗精华分类鉴赏集成Edited by Pan Bai Ji,1989, River and Sea University Publisher
4. Ch'uan T'ang Shih, 全唐诗The Sixth Tome, Chong Hua Shu Ju
5. Kao Shih Ts'en Shen Shih Hsuan, 高适岑参诗选1987 Joint Publishing Co. (HK)
由版主最后编辑: 2007-01-04
给俺们中国人看写中国诗人的文章居然用英文。那俺拿大顶看好了。I 服了U.
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